The convention’s work was shaped by the Holocaust – “that was considered the genocide,” said Naimark. About 2 million were forcibly deported to the Far North and Siberia. When it comes to use of the word "genocide," public opinion has been kinder to Stalin than Hitler. Both, in the end, were genocidaires.”, Shipment of grain from the Chervonyi Step collective farm to a procurement center, Kyivs’ka oblast’, 1932. Werth, Nicolas, “Un Etat contre son peuple. “There is a great deal of evidence of government connivance in the circumstances that brought on the shortage of grain and bad harvests in the first place and made it impossible for Ukrainians to find food for their survival,” Naimark writes. Undoubtedly, a not insignificant proportion of those had escaped. Mass Violence and Resistance - Research Network, Asia-Pacific under Japanese occupation during World War II. The destruction of the kulak class triggered the Ukrainian famine, during which 3 million to 5 million peasants died of starvation. Author: The definition can determine, after all, international relations, foreign aid and national morale. Losses accordingly numbered close to half a million people, or nearly 30% of all deportees. The kulaks were considered the enemies of the working class; Stalin believed that Russia needed to be able to feed itself, and in order for the five year plans to work, there needed to be a source of food for the workers in the factories. Is this process of equating “class genocide” with “racial genocide” really sustainable? This still leaves us with approximately 250,000-300,000 deaths. There’s a reason for Russian obliviousness. Preparation. Werth, Nicolas, L’ivrogne et la marchande de fleurs. 1. Shearer, David, Policing Stalin’s Socialism: Repression and Social Order in the Soviet Union, 1924-1953, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010. A dispossessed kulak and his family in front of their home in Udachne village in Donets’ka oblast’, 1930s. The collectivization of Russian farms proved to be such a dismal failure that shortages would occur year after year. The protagonist in Lee’s book My Year Abroad takes some inspiration from his work teaching college students. Lists of kulak in the other two categories were made on the spot at the recommendation of local authorities and village “activists”. As noted in many GPU reports, this pushed “the villages’ criminal elements to join a nucleus of young and more or less enthusiastic believers”. The civil war in the countryside was brutal and lethal. On 30 January 1930, the commission issued a secret resolution defining three categories of “kulaks”: - those “engaged in counterrevolutionary activities” (“first category”) were to be arrested and transferred to work camps or executed if they put up any resistance. The forced expropriation of grain and attempts to collectivise the countryside led to pitched battles between peasants and the new representatives of Soviet power. The famine was a direct assault on… Ukraine: Ukraine on the path to independence Fainsod, Merle, Smolensk à l’heure de Staline, Paris: Fayard, 1969. Ekor, 1993 (vol.1, 1), 1994 (vol.2). Viola, Lynne, The Unknown Gulag. We know, by the same police sources, that nearly 1.8 million “kulaks” were deported during the two main deportation waves in 1930 and 1931. The past few decades have seen terrifying examples in Rwanda, Cambodia, Darfur, Bosnia. “The Germans have gone about it the right way,” he said, pointing out that the Germany has pioneered research about the Holocaust and the crimes of the Nazi regime. Infant mortality oscillated between 8% and 12% per month, and peaked at 15% per month in Magnitogorsk. True enough, the second-wave deportations appear to have been carried out more efficiently than those of the first wave in 1930: there were fewer cases of deportees being simply abandonned in the taïga or the steppe; most of them were allocated to construction sites, mines or forestry (Danilov & Berelowitch, 2003). This plan was, however, not “fulfilled”: only 71,000 people were registered as “newcomers” in the 1932 registers of the GPU-run spetzposelki. As the authorities in the district of Tomsk (Western Siberia) reported on 7 March 1930, “the deportees arrived on foot, since we have no spare horses, sleighs or harnesses. 3 Why did Stalin want to modernise agriculture and industry? 700,000. To transport the “dekulakised”, the GPU allocated, for the “first phase”, 280 convoys of 50 cattle trucks, each of them transporting between 1,500 and 2,000 men, women and children, and a limited amount of the deportees’ tools, food and personal belongings (each family was in theory allowed to take 25 puds – or 400 kg – of luggage, but many “dekulakised” had practically nothing to take with them after their homes had been looted). To carry out these arrests and deportations, military logistics, unprededented in peacetime and mobilising hundreds of rail convoys and tens of thousands of special troops provided by the GPU, were set up. Armies and officers from the Soviet Union were trained in order to be stationed in Ukraine to keep an eye on the Kulaks. Most of the victims appear to have been on index-cards catalogues of suspects assembled over the years by the GPU (Danilov & Berelowitch, 2003). On 27 December 1929, Stalin publicly demanded “the eradication of all kulak tendencies and the elimination of the kulaks as a class”. Deportations continued in 1932-1933, but at a slower pace. “How much can you move on? “In some cases, a quota was established for the number to be executed, the number to be arrested,” said Naimark. Dekulakisation brigades resorted to outdated and often-incomplete tax returns kept by the rural soviets, information provided by the GPU, and denunciations by neighbours tempted by the possibility of gain. 1. Naimark argues that that the narrow definition of genocide is the dictator’s unacknowledged legacy to us today. The result was a grievous blow to Soviet agriculture, for most of the cattle and horses were owned by the kulaks. While the Andreev commission was trying to rationalise the economic exploitation of the deportees, the Politburo was drawing up grandiose plans for the deportation of 200,000 to 300,000 kulak families, mainly to Western Siberia and Kazakhstan (Danilov, 2001, vol.3). The Allies, exhausted by war, were loyal to their Soviet allies – to the detriment of subsequent generations. Mass killing is still the way a lot of governments do business. Peasant uprisings broke out in Ukraine, in the Tambov region, along the Volga and in Western Siberia. This classification was first proposed in 1997 by Stéphane Courtois, in his introduction to The Black Book of Communism. The Andreev commission reorganised the management of the deportees by granting the GPU power over the organisation and supervision of all the stages of the deportation and settling of the deportees. Dekulakisation, or the “liquidation of the kulaks as a class”, was part of Stalin’s “second revolution” (or “revolution from above”), launched at the end of 1929 with the decision to collectivise millions of peasant households. Ivnitskii, Nikolaï, Kollektivizatsia i raskulacivanie, Moscow: Iz. YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE... 1939 Nazi Invasion of Poland. How many “kulaks” died in the course of “de-kulakization”? “It’s a horrific case of genocide – the purposeful elimination of all or part of a social group, a political group.”. GPU reports mentioned another serious problem: by the end of 1930, fewer than 10% of adult deportees had been put to work (Viola, 2007). Stanford, California 94305. The Lost World of Stalin’s Special Settlements, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. The Soviet delegation vetoed any definition of genocide that might include the actions of its leader, Joseph Stalin. Activists promoted murderous slogans: “We will exile the kulak by the thousand when necessary – shoot the kulak breed.” “We will make soap of kulaks.” “Our class enemies must be wiped off the face of the earth.”, One Soviet report noted that gangs “drove the dekulakized naked in the streets, beat them, organized drinking bouts in their houses, shot over their heads, forced them to dig their own graves, undressed women and searched them, stole valuables, money, etc.”, Historian Norman Naimark (Image credit: L.A. Cicero). The first objective of the Andreev commission was to “halt the dreadful mess of the deportation of manpower” and to “organise a rational and effective management of the deported workforce”. Was dekulakisation “class genocide”? Time magazine put Stalin on its cover 11 times. In the process of collectivization, for example, 30,000 kulaks were killed directly, mostly shot on the spot. But within barely half-a-century, his reputation had been transformed. The “dekulakisation” campaign begun in January 1930 had in reality a twofold objective: to “extract” (the term used in secret police directives) “elements” likely to resist the collectivisation of the countryside being undertaken at the same time; and to “colonise” the vast, inhospitable areas of Siberia, the Northern Region, the Urals and Kazakhstan. Dictatorship and Democracy Statistics/Figures. When railway convoys finally arrived at their destination, the interminable journey often continued for several hundred more kilometres on sledges (in winter), carts (in spring), or even on foot. It now had 25 million, some of which were very large and owned by kulaks. Of the estimated five million people who died in the Soviet Union, almost four million were Ukrainians. 3/1, 2003), the Politburo established, on 11 March 1931, a special commission chaired by V. Andreev, member of the Politburo, with G. Iagoda playing a key role. However, the context was different: whereas in 1920-21 large segments of the peasantry had actively resisted Boshevik policy, in 1929-30 it was the pacified peasant society that was the target of the Stalinist revolution from above. The book’s title is plural for a reason: He argues that the Soviet elimination of a social class, the kulaks (who were higher-income farmers), and the subsequent killer famine among all Ukrainian peasants – as well as the notorious 1937 order No. At least 5 million were killed within a few years. Even the Soviet Army was sent into the countryside to help sow, tend, and harvest food. Almost 70% of country’s population lived in villages across great extent of Soviet Union. The term “genocide” was defined by the 1948 United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. However, the vast scale of the project led to huge problems in coordinating the militarised deportation operations carried out by the GPU and the settlement of the deportees, which was left to the initiative of local authorities, which were overwhelmed by the task or simply indifferent to the fate of the dekulakised peopl. The Molotov commission set, for a number of regions and republics, quotas of “second-category kulaks”: the total number was 154,000 households (in fact, 400,000 families were to be deported in 1930-1931); - the remainder of the kulaks, described as “loyal to the regime” and classified in the “third category”, were to be expropriated and resettled on “land requiring improvement, outside the limits of the collective farm lands but within the administrative district in which they lived” (Davies, 1980; Ivnitskii, 1996; N.Werth, 1997). (Image credit: Central State Archives of Photo, Audio, and Video Documents of Ukraine named after G. S. Pshenychnyi), “I make the argument that these matters shouldn’t be seen as discrete episodes, but seen together,” said Naimark, the Robert and Florence McDonnell Professor of Eastern European Studies and a respected authority on the Soviet regime. One report from the province of Arkhangelsk in September 1930 admitted that of the planned 1,641 living quarters for the deportees, only seven had been built. These companies were to provide living quarters for their workers, schooling for children, and a regular supply of food for all. He wanted to move away from the NEP policies (that allowed for limited capitalism) back towards the communism the Bolsheviks had fought for. Both destroyed their countries and societies, as well as vast numbers of people inside and outside their own states. We will never know how many millions Stalin killed. In reality, their managers usually treated this slave workforce as a source of free labour. Millions of cattle and pigs were slaughtered and left to rot. In fact, dekulakisation often turned into social cleansing of all “socially alien elements”, among whom featured “police officers of the Tsarist regime”, “White officers”, former landlords and shopkeepers, members of the “rural intelligentsia” (among them many teachers), many of whom had joined the SR (socialist-revolutionary) party in 1917-18. A whole network of komandatury, run by the GPU, was set up to supervise and organise all aspects of the everyday life and working conditions of the deportees. As soon as you were caught helping the Kulaks or any sort of interaction with them, you were classified as a Kulak and killed on sight. (Image credit: Central State Archives of Photo, Audio, and Video Documents of Ukraine named after G. S. Pshenychnyi), English Professor Chang-rae Lee exercises a new muscle in his latest novel, The staggering costs of health insurance “sludge”. Accounts “gloss over the genocidal character of the Soviet regime in the 1930s, which killed systematically rather than episodically,” said Naimark. But one hand that wasn’t in the room guided the pen. Millions more fell victim to forced labor, deportation, famine, massacres, and detention and interrogation by Stalin’s henchmen. Every family had not only victims but perpetrators. Deportees, known in the police jargon as spetzposelentsy (“special displaced persons”) were stripped of their civil rights, forced to reside in designated areas (called spetzposelki, or “special settlements”) and subjected to a veritable forced labour in agricultural, industrial or mining structures controlled by the GPU. Such integration into the army ipso facto removed all the legal discrimination that had been imposed on children of kulaks, even though their parents continued to be second-class citizens (Zemskov, 2003). On the other hand, we should not forget that several hundred thousand “former kulaks” – many of whom had fled from the “special settlements” to which they had been deported – were arrested during the “Great Terror” of 1937-38. They worked alone; there were no employees. Without a full examination of the past, Naimark observed, it’s too easy for it to happen again. Cruel efforts under Stalin to impose collectivism and tamp down Ukrainian nationalism left an estimated 3.9 million dead. No one. Danilov, Viktor P. & Krasilnikov, Serguei (eds), Spetzpereselentsy v Zapadnoi Sibiri, Novossibirsk: Iz. We’ll never know whether the concocted conspiracy of Jewish Kremlin doctors in 1952 would have resulted in the internal exile of the entire Jewish population. Between 1928 and 1933 the number of horses in the USSR declined from almost 30,000,000 to less than 15,0 © Stanford University. By 1934, when approximately 75 percent of the farms in the Soviet Union had been collectivized, most kulaks—as well as millions of other peasants who had opposed collectivization—had been deported to remote regions of the Soviet Union or arrested and their land and property confiscated. The resolution set a limit of 63,000 household heads in the “first category” (in fact, 284,000 persons were to be arrested during the first six months of the dekulakisation campaign as ”kulaks of the first category, 20,000 of whom were sentenced to death by troïki, extra-judicial commissions); - those “who manifested less active opposition to the Soviet state but were arch-exploiters and naturally supported counter-revolution”, placed in the “second category”, were to be arrested and deported with their families to remote areas of the Northern region, Siberia, the Urals and Kazakhstan. Around 1931, how many Kulaks were liquidated? As always, some run their farms better then others and acquire some … 3 Why did Stalin want to modernise agriculture and industry? 00447 that called for the mass execution and exile of “socially harmful elements” as “enemies of the people” – were, in fact, genocide. Peasants were labelled “kulaks” on the pretext that they had “speculated”, when all they had done was sell something of their own making. Although the kulaks, as an artificially designated and constructed group, were subjected to the kind of dehumanisation and stereotyping that was common for victims of genocide throughout the 20th century, the regime did, from the outset, introduce distinctions within the victim group (first, second and third categories). rich peasants. In the great depots, such as Vologda, Kotlas, Rostov, Sverdlovsk or Omsk, convoys would remain for weeks, filled with their human cargo. Collectivisation killed about 2.5 million in Ukraine and about half a million in the rest of the country mostly killed, as Jason B points out, by famine and deportation. In 1931, the mortality rate was 1.3% per month (16% per annum) among the deportees to Kazakhstan, and 0.8% per month (10% per annum) for those to western Siberia. Moreover, contrary to Soljenitsyn’s assertion (“children of kulaks carried the mark of Cain throughout their lives”), the pariah-status of the dekulakised was not carried forward to the next generation: from 1938 onwards, children of kulaks who reached the age of 16 were allowed to leave their place of deportation if they continued their schooling beyond the required age. 5 million people were killed. 7.) In the 1881 outbreak, there were pogroms in 166 Ukrainian towns, thousands of Jewish homes were destroyed, many families reduced to extremes of poverty; [citation needed] large numbers of men, women, and children were injured and some killed. The peasant’s support for the Bolshevik revolution, spured on by the 8 November1917 Decree on Land, granting the peasants’ demands for ownership of the land and fulfilling the dreams of rural Russia since the peasant uprisings of the 17th century, was short-lived. By the beginning of 1921, Lenin and the Bolsheviks had no choice but to retreat to the countryside. How many kulaks were killed following Stalin's decree in 1929 that they were to be liquidised? Most of them died untimely deaths, of general exhaustion and hunger (Zemskov, 2003; Danilov & Krasilnikov, 1993, 1994, Viola, 2007). But one historian looks at Stalin's mass killings and urges that the definition of genocide be widened. The Northern region was to receive 45,000 families, the Urals, Siberia and Kazakhstan 15,000 each. The third category alone consisted of about 150,000 households, one million people. Stalin believed that such a brutal policy would persuade others in agricultural regions to accept the rule of Moscow and that resistance would end. 64 terms. Stalin’s idea of wiping the slate clean after the revolution and a bloody civil war that followed led to death hundreds of thousands, for once the purge was initiated on a party level, there was no stopping it from spilling into the rest of the country. 3, 1930-1933, Moscow: Rosspen, 2001. Over the next two years, around 1.8 million "kulaks" were deported to Siberia, Kazakhstan, and the Urals and several hundred thousand shot. Considering a number of local GPU reports (for different periods in 1930 and 1931) on the flights of deported “kulaks”, we can extrapolate that around 200,000-250,000 deportees managed to escape in 1930-31. A commission from the Politburo, chaired by Viatcheslav Molotov, was tasked with pursuing all measures needed to achieve this goal. “Their (kulak) opposition took the initial form of slaughtering their cattle and horses in preference to having them collectivized. Davies, Robert W, The Industrialisation of Soviet Russia. The country struggled to feed itself. Danilov, Viktor.P & Berelowitch, Alexis (eds), Sovetskaia derevnia glazami VCK, OGPU, NKVD, vol.3/1, 1930-31, Moscow: Rosspen, 2003. What was the outcome for Kulaks from the famine? Dekulakised properties were usually simply looted or given away at auction: wooden houses were sold for 1 ruble, cows for 20 or 30 kopeks each, a hundredth of their real value. I’m convinced that they need to learn about their own past. Preliminary enquiries by the commission revealed that the productivity of the deported workforce was almost zero. They were called “enemies of the people,” as well as swine, dogs, cockroaches, scum, vermin, filth, garbage, half animals, apes. (Graziosi, 1996). They had land, equipment, furniture, a pair of oxen and horses. After Revolution and in many cases even before, peasants got land mostly by dividing land that belongs to the rich Russian aristocracy. About 2 million were forcibly deported to the Far North and Siberia. Deportations of “second-category kulaks” began as early as the second week of February 1930. who were Kulaks? When the archives were opened in the mid 1990s the true figures of the death tolls not just of collectivisation, but also of the purges became known. How many years was this gap closed in? The largest “mass secret operation”, launched by NKVD Order N°00447 dated 30 July 1937, specifically targeted, among other categories, “former kulaks, deported in previous years, who have escaped from the special settlements”. Look at the annual international tussle over whether the 1915 Turkish massacre and deportation of the Armenians “counts” as genocide. Epidemics and acute shortages (and even, in some cases, famine) decimated the deportes, first of all the children and the elderly (see section III, Victims). As Stalin’s orders to enforce collectivisation were carried out, many Kulaks responded by burning crops, killing livestock and damaging machinery. Lewin, Moshe, La paysannerie et le pouvoir soviétique, Paris: Mouton, 1966. In the process of collectivization, for example, 30,000 kulaks were killed directly, mostly shot on the spot. Disorders in the south once again recalled the government attention to the Jewish question. A number of factors lead us to be very doubtful about the applicability of the term “class genocide” when applied to the kulaks. “And yet somehow Stalin gets a pass,” Ian Frazier wrote in a recent New Yorker article about the gulags. Of the 200,000 “dekulakised” people deported to the Urals, a mere 8% were detailed to “productive activities” in April 1931. … The people had to know he was getting rid of all his enemies. The violence perpetrated by the dekulakisation gangs was horrific. They were called “enemies of the people,” as well as swine, dogs, cockroaches, scum, vermin, filth, garbage, half animals, apes. 150. “Through denial and obfuscation, the Turks have gone about it the wrong way.”. to cause a famine in the Ukraine to destroy the people there seeking independence from his rule. A number of local reports confirm the very high mortality rates among the deportees, especially among children and elderly people. Whatever plans existed ended abruptly with Stalin’s death in March 1953, as rumors of Jewish deportations were swirling. 26 million catlle 15 million horses. In autumn, the family members gathered to prepare cured meats and barrels of lard for the winter. Quadrige, 1995. how many were effected by the great famine? “Liquidation of the kulaks as a class” did not imply physical liquidation of all kulaks, even though the terrible conditions in which the deportation took place and the “settlement” of the kulaks, who, at least in the first stages of the dekulakisation operations, were often abandoned in the middle of the taïga or the desert steppes, caused a very high rate of mortality that sometimes reached 15% per annum (and much higher in the case of children). 5. “A catastrophe had just happened, and everyone was still thinking about the war that had just ended. Stalin’s solution to this was collectivization. The result of this collapse resulted in the peasant class of Ukraine (later to be the “kulaks”) controlling 96.8% of all farmable land. The families were taken from their private homes, possessions, and the men were completely separated from their families and were put into forced labour. To justify his attack, Stalin referred to the “threat” that ”rich peasants”, labelled “kulaks”, posed to the very survival of the Soviet regime, which was supposedly being strangled by the kulaks’ deliberate refusal to sell their grain to the state. Stalin tried to give the impression he was an advocate of the middle-course. Estimates of the quantity vary between 20% and 35% of all livestock being deliberately killed. “People know he was horrible, but he has not yet been declared horrible officially.”. It is important to note that the so-called “kulaks” were first and foremost defined in terms of families, not as individuals. The Socialist Offensive. They were called “enemies of the people,” as well as swine, dogs, cockroaches, scum, vermin, filth, garbage, half animals, apes. Violence, répressions, terreur en Union soviétique”, in Courtois, Stéphane, Werth, Nicolas & al, Le Livre Noir du Communisme, Paris: R. Laffont, 1997, p. 45-360. “These people”, noted one GPU report, ”drove the dekulakised naked in the streets, beat them, organized drinking-bouts in their houses, shot over their heads, forced them to dig their own graves, undressed women and searched them, stole valuables, money, etc. Conquest, Robert, The Harvest of Sorrow. About 2 million were forcibly deported to the Far North and Siberia. According to a plan approved by the highest Communist Party authority, the Politburo, chaired by Stalin, 90,000 families were to be deported as part of a first phase that was to last until the end of April. In accordance with official instructions, deportees were to be “settled some way distant from any means of communication” (Danilov & Berelowitch, 2003). Stalin and many Party leaders were still traumatised by the threat of starvation experienced by many town dwellers during the civil war and wanted to ensure that such a possibility would never again recur. Many historians consider the NEP period as simply a pause, a “truce” between the first major Bolshevik war against the peasantry (1919-1921) and the second and final one to follow (1929-1933) (Graziosi, 1996). When he died in penniless obscurity in 1883, just 11 people came to his funeral in Highgate Cemetery. They left the kulaks standing in their underwear and bare feet. The other major “enemies” during these years were people belonging to national minorities who could be associated with states bordering the Soviet Union: some 247,157 Soviet citizens were killed by the NKVD in ethnic shooting actions. The sign reads ‘Socialists’ bread instead of kulak’s bread.’ (Image credit: Central State Archives of Photo, Audio, and Video Documents of Ukraine named after G. S. Pshenychnyi). Grandma told us that they kept a lot of pigs. An estimated 700,000 - 6,000,000 kulaks were executed Including the casualties from World War Two, it is estimated that Stalin is responsible for the 34-49 million deaths. In the process of collectivization, for example, thirty thousand kulaks were killed directly, mostly shot on the spot. how many animals were killed? In fact, during this first phase, which lasted until the end of May, over 99,000 families (510,000 people) were deported (Danilov & Berelowitch, vol.3/1, 2003). How is a national identity formed when a central part of it is a crime?” Naimark asked. A few days before the launching of a second wave of “dekulakisation”, aimed at “totally cleansing the kulaks from all agricultural regions” (secret telegram sent by G. Iagoda to all republican and regional GPU plenipotentiaries on 15 March 1931, in Danilov & Berelowitch, vol. The Collectivisation of Soviet Agriculture, 1929-1930, London: MacMillan, 1980. Graziosi, Andrea, The Great Soviet Peasant War, Bolsheviks and Peasants, 1917-1933, Harvard: Harvard University Press, 1996. True, the lists of first-category kulak households were drawn up exclusively by the GPU. Many of the people who died as "Kulaks" were shocked to find out that this accusation had been laid upon them and that they were to suffer or die for it. Coordinated in each district by a troika (three-man commission) composed of the First Secretary of the local Party committee, the president of the local Soviet Executive Committee, and the head of the local GPU, operations were carried out, from the first days of February 1930, by special dekulakisation commissions and brigades. The notorious prisons, which incarcerated about 18 million people throughout their history, operated from the 1920s until shortly after Stalin’s death in 1953. Over 100,000 people killed is a shocking number but it constitutes only a small fraction of all the victims of the civil war estimated between 10 and 12 million people. At least 5 million were killed within a few years. Photo Credit. Many people were labelled “kulaks” simply on the grounds that they resisted collectivisation (Fainsod, 1969; Davies, 1980; Lewin, 1966). In the end, they all got what they deserved.”, Who remembers? Given the context of the dekulakisation campaign, especially the effects of a frantic propaganda campaign that constantly exaggerated the enemy’s cunning, treachery and skill in concealing himself, it was easy for zealous and vigilant executants to find “kulaks” wherever they chose to look. The 1932 plan for deportations of kulaks, discussed by the Politburo in April 1932, foreshadowed the banishment of 38,000 families in May-August.
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